What is Clinical Research

Clinical Research is a Multinational, Multibillion, Multidisciplinary Industry
What is Clinical Research?Clinical Research is a systematic study for new drugs in human subjects to generate data for discovering or verifying the Clinical, Pharmacological (including pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic) or adverse effects with the objective of determining safety and efficacy of the new drug.
Clinical Research is Conducted in 4 Phases
Phase I trialsThis is the first time the new drug is administered to a small number, around 20-80 healthy, informed volunteers under the close supervision of a doctor. The purpose is to determine whether the new compound is tolerated by the patient’s body and behaves in the predicted way.
Phase II trialsIn this phase, the medicine is administered to a group of approximately 100-300 informed patients to determine its effect and also to check for any unacceptable side effects.
Phase III trialsIn this phase, the group is between 1000 and 5000, for the company to use statistics to analyze the results. If the results are favourable, the data is presented to the licensing authorities for a commercial licence.
Phase IV trialsThis is a surveillance operation phase after the medicine is made available to doctors, who start prescribing it. The effects are monitored on thousands of patients to help identify any unforeseen side effects.

10 Reasons To Trade in Forex

You are probably wondering why should you consider investing your time and energy in FOREX? There are many benefits in this market and i has chosen top 10 reasons why so many people go for it:

1. No hidden fees or commissionsAren't you exhausted of all these "pay upfront" deals? Almost everywhere you have to pay to join, pay to be trained, pay to make a transaction. There is no commission fee, exchange fee or trading fee. What about the broker? Your broker makes their money by taking the difference in price between the ask price and bid price for the currency being traded. In short, you won't be asked a penny for any FOREX services.

2. No middlemen
Forex doesn't have and doesn't need middlemen, unlike for example equity exchanges. This gives you opportunity to access market maker directly. In simple words, you buy or sell directly from the entity that has put a price on a certain currency pair and, therefore, gain a quick access to trades.

3. A 24-hour market
You won't have to set an alarm to wake up early in the morning or drink 10 cups of black coffee to stay awake at night. Forex market is as flexible as it gets and welcomes traders from all over the world at any time of the day! You choose the trading hours – morning, noon or night!

4. Much less complicated then stocks
There are tones of stocks available for trading and it is difficult to keep up with the updates, read up the news and perform the analysis before each new trade. Unlike stocks, Forex market is much less demanding. You have access to many different currencies, but generally FOREx focuses on the four major currency pairs. That means less time wasting on research and much faster entrance to the market itself.

5. Leverage
Not long ago only the owners of million dollars account could participate in currency exchange. Today due to expended international growth FOREX became available to anyone from the comfort of your own home. Every individual including you have the same leverage guarantees that were available only to international banks back then. What does it mean? In simple words, a small margin deposit can control a much larger total contract value. Leverage provides each trader with a chance to profit with a minimum capital risk. For example, let's say that your broker offers 200 to 1 leverage, meaning a $20 dollar margin deposit enables you to buy or sell $20,000 worth of currencies. What about bigger deposits? In a similar fashion, $200 dollars can be used to hold $200,000 worth of another currency

6. High LiquidityThe daily turnover in Forex Market reaches 2 trillion dollars. Let me picture this for you: 2,000,000,000,000!! Forex is an enormous market and it never stays still. Almost every country in the world has institutional and individual traders who are active and have a personal interest in this largest of commodities. That's where the liquidity comes from. Buying and selling is done by a simple click of a mouse.
7. Practice makes perfect
Almost all online Forex brokers offer demo account, easily to download and install, to practice your skills. You won't have to deposit anything. The demo account works exactly like the real account with all capabilities and information. For example, with your free demo account you have an access to breaking forex news and charting services, buy and sell capabilities and realistic "play" money account with active profit and loss. This is a perfect way to master your trading skills and tactics with virtual money before becoming a real thing and opening a live trading account.

8. Free software
Forex software offered by the brokers is specifically designed for the average home computer. The software provides the trader with real-time charting, lots of indicators, live price feed and ability to sell and buy currency pairs immediately online. There is also an option to upgrade the software program for an additional cost to get an access to advanced features, but it is more then unnecessary for a beginner. Start small, think big!

9. Small deposits are allowed
Don't blame yourself for not marrying a milliner's daughter or a Saudi Arabian prince yet. You don't need tons of money to start as a currency trader. Unlike trading stocks, online forex brokers have "mini" and "micro" account options with a minimum account deposit of 250$ and lower, which makes Forex accessible to almost anyone! You might wonder what can possibly come out of $250. With proper training and patience within several months a minimal investment can turn into a $25,000 account.

10. Limit your risk with Forex
FOREX platforms are designed to automatically assign a margin call if the margin amount required by your account exceeds the actual capital available in your account. In simple words, the most you can possibly lose is the money you have got in your account and no penny more. You cannot get into minus and trade amount not available in your account.

Over all, Foreign Currency Exchange markets have become a profitable hobby and satisfying lifestyle for many individual investors. Forex is fun, user-friendly and lucrative market available to anyone of us.

Mars rover devours budgets

Ever-growing cost of the planned Mars Science Laboratory threatens other space missions.

Eric Hand

Cost estimates for the Mars Science Laboratory have risen again.NASA

The Mars Science Laboratory (MSL), NASA's souped-up 1-tonne rover due for launch in 2011, needs yet more money. The latest budget overrun could for the first time delay other missions in the agency's cash-strapped planetary-science division.

The rover's latest price tag is US$2.286 billion — 40% more than the official $1.63-billion estimate made in 2006. But even that will not be enough. In a 'breach report' due to be handed to the US Congress by the end of July, NASA will report that the troublesome mission, now also called Curiosity, needs $15–115 million more on top of the $2.286-billion estimate.

NASA has so far avoided delays and cancellations to other missions by raiding technology-development funds within the Mars programme. But officials are now considering delays to two planned Moon missions.

"The time for some tough decisions is here," said NASA science chief Ed Weiler. He broke the news to planetary scientists at an advisory-committee meeting on 9 July at NASA headquarters in Washington DC, along with Jim Green, director of the planetary science division, and Mars programme chief Doug McCuistion.

Slippery issue

The cause of the latest overrun is problems with motors, gearboxes and avionics controls. After switching from a dry to a wet lubricant, engineers have had trouble verifying the reliability of motors for the rover's robotic arm. Moreover, McCuistion says, a new snag was recently discovered: some of the premier instruments — the Sample Analysis at Mars or SAM instrument set — will suck twice as much power as was expected, and that means the rover needs to carry bigger batteries.

“Where's it going to end?”

Clive Neal
University of Notre Dame

McCuistion says he won't have confidence in the estimates for the rover's latest needs until November, when an independent cost estimate is finished. If the additional costs stay towards the $15-million end of the spectrum, McCuistion and Green think they can keep the pain within the Mars programme, by cutting money for later Mars missions in 2016, 2018 and 2020.

But if the extra costs rise toward $115 million, the agency may have to delay the Lunar Atmosphere and Dust Environment Explorer, a small orbiter due to be launched in 2012, and the International Lunar Network, a planned system of robotic lunar research stations. The agency could also delay work on New Frontiers, a planned $870-million programme of missions to many Solar-System destinations that has just begun accepting competitive proposals.

"Where's it going to end?" asks Clive Neal, a planetary scientist at the University of Notre Dame in Indiana and chair of NASA's Lunar Exploration Analysis Group. "Everything is getting sick because of one mission. And I'm not happy with that."

Too big to fail?

Like many bloated scientific endeavours, however, the MSL may be too big to fail. In January, after NASA decided to delay the rover's launch from 2009 to 2011, the planetary-science advisory committee was presented with a shocking, but presumed final, $400-million overrun. The committee recommended that NASA press ahead with the mission and try to limit cuts to the Mars programme.

At the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California, the project manager, Richard Cook, was replaced by Peter Theisinger, a former project manager for the Mars rovers Spirit and Opportunity. McCuistion says he will order an independent "lessons learned" investigation in 2010.

By then the extent of the damage to NASA's long-term plans may be known. Weiler says that it looks like the agency may not be able to be able to afford a 2020 launch of a major mission to Jupiter's moon Europa. With Mars technology budgets decimated, a Mars Sample Return mission is moving even further down the schedule. Such a mission, which would cost $6–8 billion, isn't likely to start until around 2024, says Weiler.

Obesity links found between mothers and daughters, fathers and sons

Scientists have found a strong obesity link between mothers and daughters and fathers and sons, but the link was absent across the gender divide.

In a study of 226 families by Plymouth's Peninsula Medical School, researchers found that obese mothers were 10 times more likely to have obese daughters and for fathers and sons, there was a six-fold rise.

But in both cases children of the opposite sex were not affected.

According to the researchers, it was "highly unlikely" that genetics was playing a role in the findings, as it would be unusual for them to influence children along gender lines.

On the other hand, they attributed the link to some form of "behavioural sympathy" where daughters copied the lifestyles of their mothers, and sons copied the lifestyles of their fathers.

And, thus, experts believe that the government policy on tackling obesity should be re-thought.

To date, researchers have focussed on younger age groups in the belief that obese children become obese adults.

But the new findings indicate that obese adults led to obese children.

"It is the reverse of what we have thought and this has fundamental implications for policy," the BBC quoted study leader Professor Terry Wilkin as saying.

He added: "We should be targeting the parents and that is not something we have really done to date."

The researchers took weight and height measurements for children and parents over a three-year period.

It was found that 41 percent of the eight-year-old daughters of obese mothers were obese, as compared to four percent of girls with normal-weight mothers.

However, there was no difference in the proportion for boys.

For boys, 18 percent of the group with obese fathers were also obese, compared to just three percent for those with normal-weight fathers.

And again, there was no difference in the proportion for girls.

The findings of the study have been published in the International Journal of Obesity.

Pre-Hispanic Zapotec rulers carried around human thighbones as symbol of power

New findings from a Field Museum (Chicago) excavation team has confirmed that pre-Hispanic Zapotec rulers carried around human femurs, or thigh bones, as a symbol of power and legitimacy.

Scientists had earlier found evidence of this theory from a carved lintel at the site of Lambityeco, where a ruler is depicted with a femur in his hand.

Now, a Field Museum excavation team has confirmed that they did remove femurs from earlier graves and that this custom may have been widely practiced by heads of households outside of the ruling class.

The missing femur was located in an early adobe cist internment, circa 500 AD, that lay under an excavated house at the Mitla Fortress, in the Valley of Oaxaca, some 322 miles southeast of Mexico City.

While excavating this residential terrace, or house lot, the Museum team found a total of 16 burials that include 21 individuals.

The systematic excavations are the largest ever conducted at this site well known to archaeologists for more than 150 years.

Field Museum Curator of Mesoamerican Anthropology, Gary Feinman, and Adjunct Curator of Anthropology, Linda Nicholas, are analyzing the burial sample and other finds from the Mitla Fortress.

The Fortress is less than two miles west of Mitla, which is indigenously known as the "Place of the Dead."

Although this ancient Zapotec custom of bearing a femur of a corpse has long been recognized, the excavated burial provides clear evidence of the re-opening of an earlier burial in order to remove a bone.

The evidence could further reveal that this bone-carrying custom may apply beyond rulers - since the excavated house is not a ruler's residence.

Field Museum archaeologists hope to excavate a more elaborate house in the future to gain more perspective.

Archaeologists discover previously unknown Inca road in Peru

A team of archaeologists has discovered an Inca road in Peru, which was unknown until now and apparently held sacred, leading to the citadel of Machu Picchu.

According to a report in Today's News, the discovery was made by archaeologists from the Peru National Culture Institute and technicians from Jaume I University in Castellon, Spain.

The Inca road is made of stone masonry approximately 1 meter (3 1/4 feet) wide, with sustaining walls along the way rising some 4 to 5 meters (13 to 16 feet) high, according to a communique from the Project Ukhupacha.

Several stretches of the road have collapsed that began at what is now the Wuarqtambo archaeological premises.

They went up Machu Picchu mountain and then came down from the citadel.

According to Fernando Astete Victoria, the director of the Machu Picchu National Historical Sanctuary, there had been evidence of an Inca road to the citadel different from the one that was known, and so its discovery became one of the Ukhupacha Project's goals.

A large part of Peruvian territory is united by different extensions of a great Inca road leading to the sanctuary of Machu Picchu, built high on a ridge and declared a World Heritage Site in 1983.

The archaeologists involved in the project said that this road could have been held sacred, so it was only traveled by spiritual leaders who celebrated religious rites.

The team of experts will carry out another expedition to determine the route and length of the road, since it is apparent that several stretches have been destroyed on the western slope of Machu Picchu mountain.

New compound could be a promising treatment for Alzheimer's disease

A compound called NIC5-15 has been found to be a safe and effective treatment to stabilize cognitive performance in Alzheimer's disease patients, according to a study.

The two researchers in the study, Dr. Giulio Maria Pasinetti, and Dr. Hillel Grossman, have presented the Phase IIA preliminary clinical findings, and have said that NIC5-15's potential to preserve cognitive performance will be further evaluated in a Phase IIB clinical trial.

Early evidence has suggested that NIC5-15 is a safe and tolerable natural compound that may reduce the progression of Alzheimer's disease-related dementia by preventing the formation of beta-amyloid plaque.

Beta-amyloid plaque is a waxy substance that accumulates between brain cells and impacts cognitive function.

"With Alzheimer's disease affecting 5.2 million Americans, another 5 million with early-state disease, and nearly a half million new cases reported annually, treatments like NIC5-15 would make a significant difference in the lives of many Alzheimer's patients. We are hopeful that the follow up clinical study will support this preliminary evidence," said Pasinetti.

Grossman said: "There are no FDA-approved Alzheimer's disease modifying drugs available today."

He added: "Current drugs approved for use help maintain cognitive function, but only for a limited time. NIC5-15 is part of a new class of natural compound we found to have the potential of precluding the generation of _-amyloid and, eventually, attenuating cognitive deterioration in preclinical models of Alzheimer's disease."

The Phase IIA preliminary clinical findings of the study were presented at the Alzheimer's Association 2009 International Conference on Alzheimer's Disease (ICAD) in Vienna.

Alzheimer's disease drug may treat traumatic brain injury too

A class of drugs used for the treatment of Alzheimer's Disease (AD) has been found to be effective in treating traumatic brain injury as well, according to researchers from Georgetown University Medical Center (GUMC).

The scientists have found that the destructive cellular pathways activated in AD are also triggered after traumatic brain injury, indicating that a new therapy could successfully treat both conditions.

Now, the researchers are all set to show that deactivating these pathways in part by using a class of AD drug, called gamma secretase inhibitor, could reduce loss of neurons in animal models of traumatic brain injury.

The drug also protected the animals against motor and cognitive deficits.

"The goal for both diseases is to prevent neuronal cell death, and this study suggests that one therapy could possibly work for both," said the study's lead author, neuroscientist Dr. Mark Burns.

Both disorders are associated with build-up of beta amyloid, a toxic brain peptide.

Burns says that build-up of beta amyloid occurs in a second wave of damage that follows immediate "necrotic" death of nerve cells after traumatic brain injury.

This secondary injury can last months, if not years, resulting in large holes within brain tissue.

Amyloid peptides are produced when a long brain protein known as the amyloid precursor protein (APP) is cut in two by the enzyme beta secretase, and then cut once again by a second enzyme known as gamma secretase.

Agents that inhibit the activity of gamma secretase are now being studied as treatment for Alzheimer's disease.

In the study, researchers used mice that were either treated with DAPT, an experimental gamma secretase inhibitor, or mice which were "BACE knock-outs" -genetically altered in such a way that they could not produce beta secretase.

It was found that DAPT and BACE knockout mice had brain lesions that were as much as 70 percent smaller than control animals and they experienced minimal impairment.

Burns said that the findings further cement the connection between Alzheimer's disease and traumatic brain injury.

In addition, the study showed that "modulation of beta and gamma secretase may provide novel therapeutic targets for the treatment of traumatic brain injury."

The findings of the study will be presented at the Alzheimer's Association 2009 International Conference on Alzheimer's Disease.

Robo fish to shed light on how fish swim upstream

Soon, with the help of a swimming robotic fish, scientists would be able to understand how fish swim upstream.

According to a report by the Independent News and Media Limited, five research institutions, including the University of Bath, have been given 1.8 million euros by the European Commission to build the swimming robot.

The consortium is led by the Tallinn University of Technology in Estonia, with partners Riga Technical University in Latvia, Italian Institute of Technology and the Universities of Verona and Bath.

The robotic fish will react to changes in current or flow, as a real fish might encounter in a fast-flowing stream or near the seashore.

It will also be used to film marine life near the shore, where conventional propeller-driven submersible robots have difficulty maneuvering due to shallow water, kelp and currents created by waves.

The researchers will try to mimic the sense organ found in fish, called the lateral line, which allows the fish to detect the flow of water around it and react to it.

The fish's complex nervous system will be emulated by computer software, which will allow the robot to adjust its swimming behaviour to compensate for the flow of water.

When the robot hits the water in a few years' time, it can also be used in biological research, de-mining activities, pollution control and monitoring the world's ecosystems.

The team at the Ocean Technologies Lab at Bath in the University's Department of Mechanical Engineering will be leading the fish biology for the project, looking at how fish respond to changes in flow.

According to Dr William Megill, lecturer in Biomimetics at the University of Bath, "Currently, most aquatic robots can't maneuver very well in the shallow water near the shore because they just get smashed against the rocks by the force of the waves."

"However, even in a tsunami, fish manage to sense and swim against the current so that they stay in the water, rather than ending up on the beach," he said.

"So this project is interesting on two levels - firstly we want to understand more about how the fish manages to react to changes in current, and secondly we want to create a robot that mimics this artificially," he added.

Shuttle Endeavour mission delayed again by weather

Lightning strikes and thunderstorms near the seaside launch pad forced NASA on Monday to delay yet again the launch of shuttle Endeavour on a mission to the International Space Station.

"The weather has just bitten us again," launch director Pete Nickolenko radioed to the Endeavour crew, as the spaceship's liftoff was postponed for the fifth time in about a month.

Endeavour had been scheduled to blast off at 6:51 p.m. EDT

(2251 GMT) on a mission to install a Japanese-built outdoor research platform at the space station. The launch was rescheduled for 6:03 p.m. EDT (2203 GMT) on Wednesday.

Two launch attempts last month were scuttled by hydrogen fuel leaks. A third attempt ended on Saturday when NASA ordered checks of the shuttle's electrical systems following a spate of lightning strikes and Sunday's launch was canceled due to poor weather.

NASA is trying to complete construction of the $100 billion orbital outpost, a project of 16 nations, by Sept. 30, 2010, so it can retire the shuttle fleet and ramp up development of replacement ships that can journey to the moon and other destinations farther from Earth.

Endeavour's cargo includes the Japanese-built platform that is to be mounted to the front of the $2.4-billion Kibo lab where it will serve as an outdoor perch for science experiments that need to be exposed to the open environment of space.

Experiments on the platform can be installed and retrieved remotely with a robotic arm, eliminating the need for time-consuming and potentially risky spacewalks by station crewmembers. The first two sections of Kibo were attached to the station in 2008.

The platform is to be installed during the first of five spacewalks planned during Endeavour's 12-day stay at the station. Astronauts also are expected to replace batteries that are part of the station's solar power system and store spare parts needed to keep the outpost operational after the shuttle fleet is retired.

Space shuttle Endeavour grounded again

The space shuttle Endeavour was grounded for the fifth time on Monday with stormy weather again causing NASA to cancel a scheduled launch.

A storm south of the Cape Canaveral, Florida launch site threatened not just the launch, but also a landing site should the flight need to be aborted after lift-off. The decision to scrub the launch came shortly before the planned 6.51 p.m. (2251 GMT)

launch.

NASA said it would try again Wednesday at 6.03 p.m. (2203 GMT).

'When the time is right, we'll be here and we'll be ready,' said Commander Mark Polansky, who had been strapped into the shuttle along with the rest of the crew when the effort was scrubbed.

The seven-member crew is to deliver an outside porch to be installed on the International Space Station's Japanese Kibo module to expose scientific experiments to the extremities of space.

The mission has suffered a slew of delays that kept the craft on the ground for weeks longer than planned. A planned Sunday launch was cancelled due to storms and a Saturday launch was also scrubbed due to lightening the night before that struck the launch pad, but sparred the shuttle itself.

NASA was forced to postponed the launch twice in just four days last month, after technicians detected hydrogen gas leaks during fuelling, just hours before scheduled liftoff.

How Java's seafarers built their boats in the 6th and 7th centuries

The recent discovery of an ancient boat in Indonesia has shed light on how Java's seafarers in the 6th and 7th centuries built their boats.

According to a report in The Jakarta Post, the ancient boat, measuring 15.6 meters long and 4 meters wide, was found in Punjulharjo village, Rembang district, in Rembang regency.

A team from the Yogyakarta Archaeology Center made a detailed study of the site, about 200 meters inland from the Java Sea coastline, from June 17 to 26 this year.

The boat, approximately 1,200 years old, was found buried near the Central Java northern coastline, with its bow lying to the west and its stern in the east.

The ancient boat is the most complete ever found in Indonesia, according to the chairman of the Yogyakarta archaeology team, Novida Abbas.

"So far, we have only got wooden planks and other separate pieces. The discovery in Rembang is 50 percent intact," Novida said. "We can see the actual shape of the boat and its construction technology," he added.

Novida estimates that the boat could hold 30 people.

Its skeleton remains complete, including its sides, bottom, curved ribs (to support the sides), stringers (to fasten the ribs) and wooden pegs, as well as palm-fiber ropes to fasten the ribs to knobs on the inside of the sides. There are also rattan and bamboo items.

According to Priyatno Hadi, a team member and archaeology graduate from Yogyakarta's Gadjah Mada University, the main body of the boat was unbroken.

The hull was built using a very simple method that did not require any metal components.

"Planks were first arranged to form an arc and then the curved wooden ribs were placed in parallel rows from the stern to the bow. Thereafter, they were fastened and strengthened with wooden pegs," said Hadi, showing the thumb-sized pegs.

Twelve of the boat's 17 ribs are still joined to its flanks, with their palm-fiber ropes still partly tied in their knots.

Unusually, there are also L-shaped planks in the stern - with those in the bow probably having been lost - for reinforcement due to the palm-fiber rope holes.

Missing are the upper parts of the boat and some parts of the bow, according to Novida.

"The entire boat may have been larger than what has been found today. Its age of 12 centuries and its almost complete state provide good material for more comprehensive research," he said.

"So, we will finally have an idea of what Indonesia's ancient boats looked like without having to speculate much. This finding gives us a good idea," he added.

As coastal cities expand, quality of life deteriorates there

Expansion of coastal cities is accompanied by a decline in the quality of life of the people, says a new study.

Many megacities such as Tokyo (population 36 million), New York (22 million) and London (12 million) are found in the coastal zone. Coastal protection measures give a sense of false security and require increasingly expensive infrastructure, the study says.

The treatment and cure of these coastal cities include renewable energy, recycled water and solid waste, sourcing locally grown foods and attention to social equity issues, especially in education and healthcare.

These are the conclusions of 40 international experts from wide ranging disciplines including economics, social sciences and natural sciences who met for a five-day workshop near Oslo, Norway, organised by LOICZ (Land-Ocean Interactions in the Coastal Zone), a core project of the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme and the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change.

Up to now, governments at all scales, from local to international, have largely failed to seriously implement integrated management in coastal zones, said a release of Helmholtz Association of German Research Centres.

This has placed people at risk of disasters such as hurricane Katrina and the Banda Aceh tsunami. The interconnection of coastal processes with upstream management in river catchment has widely been ignored, causing coastal erosion, lack of runoff, nutrient shortage and subsiding deltas.

What makes cheetah the fastest running animal on Earth

Using high-speed cameras, a team of scientists is attempting to discover exactly what makes cheetahs the fastest running animals on the planet.

According to a report by BBC News, a Royal Veterinary College (RVC) team is using high-speed cameras and a sensitive track to monitor the big cats as they sprint.

The study is being carried out with North African cheetahs from ZSL Whipsnade Zoo in England.

Cheetahs can reach speeds of at least 104km/h (64mph) and they can achieve their top speed in just a few paces.

"The cheetah is fascinating because it can run 50 percent faster than any of the other animals we are familiar with, so in terms of understanding what limits how fast you can run, the cheetah is a wonderful animal to study," said professor Alan Wilson, head of the structure and motion laboratory at RVC.

Just as most domestic cats cannot resist chasing a piece of string, cheetahs also find the temptation of some twitching twine too difficult to ignore, especially if a tasty treat is dangling from the end.

So, the research team entices the zoo's cheetahs to run by attaching some choice chicken pieces to a loop of fast-moving string that is pulled along the enclosure by an electric motor.

As the cats chase the chicken feast, four high-speed cameras, which record at 1,000 frames per second, capture their every move.

"We use two cameras on each side of the enclosure so we can see the cheetah from both sides," said Penny Hudson, a PhD student at RVC.

"When a cheetah gallops, it does different things with either side of its body - it has an asymmetric gait," she added.

The scientists are also using special plates that are embedded within the cheetahs' running track.

"The plates are like sophisticated weighing scales that are able to measure all the forces going through their legs," Hudson explained.

The scientists are going to compare their results with other studies that have been carried out on greyhounds, which can reach top speeds of approximately 60km/h (40mph).

"Cheetahs can run much faster than a racing greyhound. So, we're trying to get them running at similar speeds to see what they do that's the same and what they do that makes them go that little bit faster," Hudson said.

The data from the experiments will be used to examine the forces and dynamics of the cats' legs, their speed, the length of each stride, as well as joint angles and posture.

Losing sight of people can spell disaster

Losing sight of people in a crowd can spell disaster, warns a new report on terrorist threats and crowd control.

The report, based on other reports on understanding crowd behaviour, also claims that over-reliance on technical and IT solutions implies failure to learn from past disasters.

The reports were compiled for the British cabinet office by researchers from two centres within Leeds University Business School (COSLAC and CSTSD), and are the first to bring together sociological and psychological research on events and crowd behaviour, reviewing over 550 academic papers.

They also drew on in-depth interviews with 27 specialists in the field (police, emergency planners and event managers) to produce detailed guidelines for event organisers.

The findings will be of use to all those managing events involving large numbers of people and are particularly timely in the run up to 2012 (Olympics in London), said a Leeds University release.

Researchers cite the recent debacle at the opening of Heathrow's Terminal Five as a prime example of a situation where faith in the power of new software and other technology meant that the importance of people was overlooked.

Almost 300 flights in and out of Heathrow Airport were cancelled during the first five days as teething problems at the new Terminal 5 caused chaos, according to a BBC report last year.

'Believing new technology can be the answer to all problems means we are more likely to overlook basic lessons from past events,' the study authors wrote.

Government inefficiency places people in coastal zones at risk from tsunamis

A team of international experts has determined that governments have largely failed to seriously implement integrated management in coastal zones, placing people at risk of disasters such as hurricane Katrina and the Banda Aceh tsunami.

This was the conclusion of 40 international experts from wide ranging disciplines including economics, social sciences and natural sciences who met for an intensive, 5 day workshop near Oslo, Norway.

Many Megacities such as Tokyo, New York and London are found in the coastal zone.

According to researchers, coastal protection measures give a sense of false security and require increasingly expensive infrastructure.

The treatment and cure of these coastal syndromes includes renewable energy, recycled water and solid waste, sourcing locally grown foods and attention to social equity issues, especially in education and healthcare.

The researchers said that up to now, governments at all scales, from local to international, have largely failed to seriously implement integrated management in coastal zones.

This has placed people at risk of disasters such as hurricane Katrina and the Banda Aceh tsunami.

The interconnection of coastal processes with upstream management in river catchment has widely been ignored, causing coastal erosion, lack of runoff, nutrient shortage and subsiding deltas.

The pace of change in general is increasing and regionally, the world is already seeing both economic and climate-change refugees.

In parallel, there are climate entrepreneurs eager to exploit Arctic resources.

Climate change is exposing the fragile Arctic coasts and ecosystems as well as their vulnerable inhabitants, who subsist on traditional lifestyles, to increasing risks.

Innovation is needed to solve the widespread problems, if we are to turn the tide of losses.

According to researchers, we must enable governance at all scales from intergovernmental engagement to the individual, personal choices that may counteract the tyranny of "small and short sighted decisions".

Positive emotions build resilience, boost life satisfaction

People who make sure that their lives are filled with frequent moments of positive emotions, tend to have increased resilience against challenges, according to a new study by researchers at University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.

Dr. Barbara Fredrickson and her colleagues have suggested that people should build on a daily diet of positive emotions to ensure increased levels of life satisfaction.

"This study shows that if happiness is something you want out of life, then focusing daily on the small moments and cultivating positive emotions is the way to go," she said.

She added: "Those small moments let positive emotions blossom, and that helps us become more open. That openness then helps us build resources that can help us rebound better from adversity and stress, ward off depression and continue to grow."

The month long study involved 86 participants, who were asked to submit daily "emotion reports", rather than answering general questions like, "Over the last few months, how much joy did you feel?"

"Getting those daily reports helped us gather more accurate recollections of feelings and allowed us to capture emotional ups and downs," said Fredrickson.

She said that building up a daily diet of positive emotions does not require banishing negative emotions, and the study helps to show that to be happy, people do not need to adopt a "Pollyanna-ish" approach and deny the upsetting aspects of life.

"The levels of positive emotions that produced good benefits weren't extreme. Participants with average and stable levels of positive emotions still showed growth in resilience even when their days included negative emotions," said Fredrickson.

She suggested that one should focus on the "micro-moments" that can help unlock one positive emotion here or there.

"A lot of times we get so wrapped up in thinking about the future and the past that we are blind to the goodness we are steeped in already, whether it's the beauty outside the window or the kind things that people are doing for you," she said.

She added: "The better approach is to be open and flexible, to be appreciative of whatever good you do find in your daily circumstances, rather than focusing on bigger questions, such as 'Will I be happy if I move to California?' or 'Will I be happy if I get married?'"

The study, titled 'Happiness Unpacked: Positive Emotions Increase Life Satisfaction by Building Resilience', has been published in the journal Emotion.

CAUSES OF CHIRROSIS

INTRODUCTION

LIVER CIRRHOSIS

Cirrhosis is a complication of many liver diseases that is characterized by abnormal structure and function of the liver. The diseases that lead to cirrhosis do so because they injure and kill liver cells, and the inflammation and repair that is associated with the dying liver cells causes scar tissue to form. The liver cells that do not die multiply in an attempt to replace the cells that have died. This results in clusters of newly-formed liver cells (regenerative nodules) within the scar tissue. There are many causes of cirrhosis; they include chemicals (such as alcohol, fat, and certain medications), viruses toxic metals (such as iron and copper that accumulate in the liver as a result of genetic diseases), and autoimmune liver disease in which the body's immune system attacks the liver.

Cirrhosis refers to scarring of the liver. Scar tissue forms because of injury or long-term disease. It replaces healthy tissue.

Scar tissue cannot do what healthy liver tissue does—make protein, help fight infections, clean the blood, help digest food, and store energy for when you need it. Scar tissue also blocks the normal flow of blood through the liver. Too much scar tissue means that your liver cannot work properly. To live, you need a liver that works.

Cirrhosis can be life-threatening, but it can also be controlled if treated early.

CAUSES OF CHIRROSIS:

Cirrhosis has many causes, including

• alcohol abuse (alcoholic liver disease)
• chronic viral hepatitis (hepatitis B, C, or D)
• autoimmune hepatitis, which is destruction of liver cells by the body’s immune system
• nonalcoholic fatty liver disease or nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), which is fat deposits and inflammation in the liver
• some drugs, toxins, and infections
• blocked bile ducts, the tubes that carry bile from the liver
• some inherited diseases such as
• hemochromatosis (HEE-moh-KROH-muh-TOH-sus), a disease that occurs when the body absorbs too much iron and stores the excess iron in the liver, pancreas, and other organs
• Wilson disease, which is caused by the buildup of too much copper in the liver
• protoporphyria (PROH-toh-pour-FEAR-ee-uh), a disorder that affects the skin, bone marrow, and liver

Sometimes the cause of cirrhosis remains unknown even after a thorough medical examination.

INTRODUCTION

Most liver diseases lead to hepatocyte dysfunction with the possibility of eventual organ failure. The replacement of diseased hepatocytes and the stimulation of endogenous or exogenous regeneration by stem cells are the main aims of liver-directed

Bone marrow appears to contain three types of stem cell populations hematopoietic (hscs)endothelial progenitor and mesenchymal .the hscs produce all types of blood cells in the body .endothelial flat cells that line the blood and lymphatic vessels ,the heart,and various other body cavities .mesenchymal cells,a network of cells derived from the embronic mesoderm ,give rise to connective tissues and other parts of the cardiovascular system .each of these kinds of stemcells can be isolated from adult marrow and apper to have the potential for multiple lineges of sifferentation

Bone marrow differentiation

The transdifferentiation of BMSC into hepatic cells invivo was described in rats[3,17], mice[7] and humans[8,18]. Thishas brought new hope to cell therapy using autologous bone marrow . MSC can easily be obtained following a simple bone marrowaspiration procedure, and may be subsequently culturedand expanded in vitro without losing their stem cellpotential, making them an attractive target for cell therapy

THERAPETIC APPLICATIONS OF BONE MARROW –DERIVED STEM CELLS IN LIVER TRANSPLANTATION FOR END –STAGE LIVER DISEASES

Bone marrow-derived stem cells (BMDSCs) are capable of differentiating into hepatocyte-like cells and contribute to liver injury repair. The microenvironment of liver injury caused by rejection, ischemia/reperfusion, loss of liver mass, recurrence of HCV and “small-for-size syndrome� after LT can attract a variety of bone marrow-derived stem cell population to the peripheral circulation and then migration to the injury liver to promote the hepatic function restoration. Additionally, BMDSCs can also take part in the functional regeneration of living donor liver after LDLT. This participation in liver regeneration may be associated to the interaction between SDF-1and its receptor CXCR4, involving HGF, IL-8, MMP9, and VEGF/VEGFR-2. BMDSC with its bio-characteristics could maintain the allograft tolerance from different angles and in different ways.

ADIPOSE STEM CELLS:

Adipose tissue-derived mesenchymal stem cells as a source of human hepatocytes

Recent observations indicate that several stem cells can differentiate into hepatocytes; thus, cell-based therapy is a potential alternative to liver transplantation. The goal of the present study was to examine the in vitro hepatic differentiation potential of adipose tissue-derived mesenchymal stem cells (AT-MSCs). We used AT-MSCs from different age patients and found that, after incubation with specific growth factors (hepatocyte growth factor [HGF], fibroblast growth factor [FGF1], FGF4) the CD105(+) fraction of AT-MSCs exhibited high hepatic differentiation ability in an adherent monoculture condition. CD105(+) AT-MSC-derived hepatocyte-like cells revealed several liver-specific markers and functions, such as albumin production, low-density lipoprotein uptake, and ammonia detoxification. More importantly, CD105(+) AT-MSC-derived hepatocyte-like cells, after transplantation into mice incorporated into the parenchyma of the liver..

Stem cells are a population possessing 1) self-renewal capacity, 2) long-term viability, and 3) multilineage potential. The multilineage potential of embryonic stem cells and adult stem cells from the bone marrow has been characterized extensively. Although embryonic stem cell potential is enormous, many ethical and political issues accompany their use. Therefore, adult stem cells from the bone marrow stroma (i.e., mesenchymal stem cells, MSCs) have been proposed as an alternative source. Originally identified as a source of osteoprogenitor cells, MSCs differentiate into adipocytes, chondrocytes, osteoblasts, and myoblasts in vitro

Adipose tissue differentiation

Adipose tissue provides an abundant and accessible source of adult stem termed adipose tissue-derived stem cells (ADSC) ADSC differentiation into tissues of nonmesodermal origin, an initial effort has been made to differentiate ADSC into hepatocytes, endocrine pancreatic cells, neurons, cardiomyocytes, hepatocytes, and endothelial/vascular cells

ADSC treated with HGF, oncostatin M (OSM), and dimethyl sulfoxide have the potential to develop a hepatocyte-like phenotype expressing albumin and alpha-fetoprotein. HGF is a potent mitogen that acts via the HGF receptor c-Met, a transmembrane protein with an intracellular tyrosine kinase domain. HGF plays an important role in liver regeneration and embryonic development. OSM is a member of the IL-6 cytokine family regulating hepatocyte differentiation.

OSM is a member of the IL-6 cytokine family regulating hepatocyte differentiation

Expanding on these in vitro data, intravenously injected ADSC show integration into the liver in mice, an effect that can be enhanced after partial hepatectomy that promotes liver regeneration

Comparative between Bone marrow and Adpiose stem cells:

In one study comparing bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (BMMSC) and lipoaspirate-derived ADSC [28] from the same patient, no significant differences were observed regarding the yield of adherent stromal cells, growth kinetics, cell senescence, multilineage differentiation capacity, or gene transduction efficiency. Metabolic characteristics and fat cell viability seem not to differ when comparing standard liposuction with syringe aspiration, and no unique combination of preparation or harvesting techniques has appeared superior to date [25] cell therapy

ADSC compared with MSC from other sources possessed the longest culture period and the highest proliferation capacity[23]. Thus, adipose tissue may be an ideal source of large amounts of autologous stemcells attainable by a less invasive method than BMSC

” In addition, a comparative study of the hepatogenic differentiation potential in vitro of both types of MSC has not yet been performed”.

Based on these previous fi ndings, the aim of this study was to investigate and compare the hepatic differentiation of human MSC from bone marrow (BMSC) and adipose tissue (ADSC) obtained from healthy donors. To this end, these cells were isolated and cultured under similar prohepatogenic conditions to those of liver development to define the different capacities of hepatic differentiation of the two subsets in vitro

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) isolated from bone marrow (BM), cartilage, and adipose tissue (AT) possess the capacity for self-renewal and the potential for multilineage differentiation, and are therefore perceived as attractive sources of stem cells for cell therapy. However, MSCs from these different sources have different characteristics. We compared MSCs of adult Sprague Dawley rats derived from these three sources in terms of their immunophenotypic characterization, proliferation capacity, differentiation ability, expression of angiogenic cytokines, and anti-apoptotic ability. According to growth curve, cell cycle, and telomerase activity analyses, MSCs derived from adipose tissue (AT-MSCs) possess the highest proliferation potential, followed by MSCs derived from BM and cartilage (BM-MSCs and C-MSCs). In terms of multilineage differentiation, MSCs from all three sources displayed osteogenic, adipogenic, and chondrogenic differentiation potential. The result of realtime RT-PCR indicated that these cells all expressed angiogenic cytokines, with some differences in expression level. Flow cytometry and MTT analysis showed that C-MSCs possess the highest resistance toward hydrogen peroxide -induced apoptosis, while AT-MSCs exhibited high tolerance to serum deprivation-induced apoptosis. Both AT and cartilage are attractive alternatives to BM as sources for isolating MSCs, but these differences must be considered when choosing a stem cell source for clinical application.

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) represent a promising tool for new clinical concepts in supporting cellular therapy. Bone marrow (BM) was the first source reported to contain MSCs. However, for clinical use, BM may be detrimental due to the highly invasive donation procedure and the decline in MSC number and differentiation potential with increasing age. More recently, umbilical cord blood (UCB), attainable by a less invasive method, was introduced as an alternative source for MSCs. Another promising source is adipose tissue (AT). We compared MSCs derived from these sources regarding morphology, the success rate of isolating MSCs, colony frequency, expansion potential, multiple differentiation capacity, and immune phenotype. No significant differences concerning the morphology and immune phenotype of the MSCs derived from these sources were obvious. Differences could be observed concerning the success rate of isolating MSCs, which was 100% for BM and AT, but only 63% for UCB. The colony frequency was lowest in UCB, whereas it was highest in AT. However, UCB-MSCs could be cultured longest and showed the highest proliferation capacity, whereas BM-MSCs possessed the shortest culture period and the lowest proliferation capacity. Most strikingly, UCB-MSCs showed no adipogenic differentiation capacity, in contrast to BM- and AT-MSCs. Both UCB and AT are attractive alternatives to BM in isolating MSC: AT as it contains MSCs at the highest frequency and UCB as it seems to be expandable to higher numbers

Distinctions between PLA and MSC Population

Analysis of PLA cells and MSCs in this study has identified many similarities between the two populations, lending support to the theory that stem cells can be found within adipose tissue. However, these similarities may also indicate that PLA cells are simply an MSC population located within the adipose compartment, perhaps the result of infiltration of MSCs from the peripheral blood supply. However, we do no believe this to be the case. First, the presence of MSCs in the peripheral blood is controversial. Moreover, if present within the peripheral blood, the number of MSCs within the bone marrow stroma is extremely low (~1 MSC per 10⁵ stromal cells; Rikard et al., 1994 ; Bruder et al., 1997 ; Pittenger et al., 1999 ) and is likely to be even lower in the peripheral blood. This low level is unlikely to give the relatively high levels of differentiation observed in this study. Second, we have observed several distinctions between PLA and MSC populations that suggest they are similar, but not identical, cell types: 1) Preliminary results on PLA cells indicate that sera screening is not necessary for their expansion and differentiation (Zuk et al., 2001 ), a requirement for MSCs (Lennon et al., 1996 ). 2) MSCs did not undergo chondrogenic or myogenic differentiation under the conditions used in this study, suggesting distinctions in differentiation capacities and/or kinetics. 3) Immunofluorescence analysis identified differences in CD marker profile between PLA and MSC populations. In contrast to MSCs, expression of CD106 was not observed on PLA cells, whereas PLA cells were found to express CD49d. 4) Distinctions between PLA and MSC populations may also extend to the gene level. For example, osteocalcin expression was restricted to PLA samples induced specifically with VD. Although treatment of MSCs with VD also induced OC expression, expression of this gene was also observed in dexamethasone-treated and non-induced MSCs, albeit at lower levels (our unpublished data; online Figure S5). In addition, PLA cells and MSCs exhibited distinctions in BMP-2 and dlx5 expression, both of which were found in induced MSCs only. Because dlx5 and BMP2 are known to mediate expression of multiple osteogenic genes, it is possible that PLA and MSC populations differ in their regulation of the osteogenic differentiation pathway. Taken together, these differences may indicate that adipose tissue contains stem cells, distinct from those found in the bone marrow stroma. However, the possibility that PLA cells are a clonal variant of circulating MSCs cannot be ruled out.

Adipose tissue, like bone marrow, is derived from the mesenchyme and contains a supportive stroma that is easily isolated. Based on this, adipose tissue may represent a source of stem cells that could have far-reaching effects on several fields. We have previously identified a putative stem cell population within human lipoaspirates (Zuk et al., 2001 ). This cell population, called processed lipoaspirate (PLA) cells, can be isolated from adipose tissue in significant numbers and exhibits stable growth and proliferation kinetics in culture. Moreover, PLA cells, like MSCs, differentiate in vitro toward the osteogenic, adipogenic, myogenic, and chondrogenic lineages when treated with established lineage-specific factors. The multilineage differentiation capacity of PLA cells led us to speculate that a population of multipotent stem cells, comparable with MSCs, can be isolated from human adipose tissue.

To confirm whether PLA cells represent a stem cell population, we conducted an extensive molecular and biochemical characterization of the PLA population and several clonal isolates, termed adipose-derived stem cells (ADSCs). PLA cells expressed several CD marker antigens similar to those observed on MSC controls. Induction of PLA cells and clones toward multiple mesodermal lineages resulted in the expression of several lineage-specific genes and proteins similar to those observed in induced MSC controls and lineage-committed precursor cell lines. Moreover, established biochemical assays confirmed lineage-specific metabolic activity in induced PLA populations. In addition to mesodermal capacity, PLA cells and clones differentiated into putative neurogenic cells exhibiting a neuronal-like morphology and expressing several proteins consistent with the neuronal phenotype. Finally, PLA cells exhibited unique characteristics distinct from that seen in MSCs, including differences in CD marker and gene expression profiles. In conclusion, the results presented in this study suggest that adipose tissue may be an additional source of unique, pluripotent stem cells with multi-germline potential.

Cell Culture and Differentiation

PLA cells were obtained from raw human lipoaspirates and cultured as described in a previous study (Zuk et al., 2001 ). Briefly, raw lipoaspirates were washed extensively with sterile phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) to remove contaminating debris and red blood cells. Washed aspirates were treated with 0.075% collagenase (type I; Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO) in PBS for 30 min at 37°C with gentle agitation. The collagenase was inactivated with an equal volume of DMEM/10% fetal bovine serum (FBS) and the infranatant centrifuged for 10 min at low speed. The cellular pellet was resuspended in DMEM/10% FBS and filtered through a 100-μm mesh filter to remove debris. The filtrate was centrifuged as detailed above and plated onto conventional tissue culture plates in control medium (Table 1). Normal human osteoblasts (NHOst), normal human chondrocytes from the knee (NHCK), and a population of MSCs from human bone marrow were purchased from Clonetics (Walkersville, MD) and maintained in commercial medium. The murine 3T3-L1 preadipocyte cell line (Green and Meuth, 1974 ) was obtained from American Type Culture Collection (Manassas, VA). NHOst, PLA cells, and 3T3-L1 cells were treated with mesenchymal lineage-specific media as outlined in Table 1. MSCs were induced using commercial control medium supplemented with the growth factors outlined in Table 1. NHOst and NHCK cells were induced using commercially available induction media (Clonetics).

PLA Cells Are Phenotypically Similar to MSCs

Characterization of MSCs has been performed using the expression of cell-specific proteins and CD markers (Bruder et al., 1998b ; Conget and Minguell, 1999 ; Pittenger et al., 1999 ). Like MSCs, PLA cells expressed CD29, CD44, CD71, CD90, CD105/SH2, and SH3 and were absent for CD31, CD34, and CD45 expression (online Figure S1). Moreover, flow cytometry on PLA cells confirmed the expression of CD13, whereas no expression of CD14, 16, 56, 62e, or 104 was detected (Table 2). These results demonstrate that similar CD complements are expressed on both PLA cells and MSCs. However, distinctions in two CD markers were observed: PLA cells were positive for CD49d and negative for CD106, whereas the opposite was observed on MSCs. Expression of CD106 has been confirmed in the bone marrow stroma and, specifically, MSCs (Levesque et al., 2001 ) where it is functionally associated with hematopoiesis. The lack of CD106 on PLA cells is consistent with the localization of these cells to a non-hematopoietic tissue.

Liver transplantation is the primary treatment for various end-stage hepatic diseases but is hindered by the lack of donor organs and by complications associated with rejection and immunosuppression. There is increasing evidence to suggest the bone marrow is a transplantable source of hepatic progenitors. We previously reported that multipotent bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells differentiate into functional hepatocyte-like cells with almost 100% induction frequency under defined conditions, suggesting the potential for clinical applications. The aim of this study was to critically analyze the various parameters governing the success of bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cell-based therapy for treatment of liver diseases.

METHODS: Lethal fulminant hepatic failure in nonobese diabetic severe combined immunodeficient mice was induced by carbon tetrachloride gavage. Mesenchymal stem cell-derived hepatocytes and mesenchymal stem cells were then intrasplenically or intravenously transplanted at different doses.

RESULTS: BMSC and ADSC exhibited a fibroblastic morphology that changed to a polygonal shape when cells differentiated. Expression of stem cell marker Thy1 decreased in differentiated ADSC and BMSC. However, the expression of the hepatic markers, albumin and CYPs increased to a similar extent in differentiated BMSC and ADSC. Hepatic gene activation could be attributed to increased liver-enriched transcription factors (C/EBPβ and HNF4α), as demonstrated by adenoviral expression vectors.

CONCLUSION: Mesenchymal stem cells can be induced to hepatogenic transdifferentiation in vitro . ADSCs have a similar hepatogenic differentiation potential to BMSC, but a longer culture period and higher proliferation capacity. Therefore, adipose tissue may be an ideal source of large amounts of autologous stem cells, and may become an alternative for hepatocyte regeneration, liver cell trans transplantation or preclinical drug testing.

Adipose tissue is a source of multipotent stem cells that can be easily isolated, selected, and induced into mature, transplantable hepatocytes. The fact that they are easy to procure ex vivo in large numbers makes them an attractive tool for clinical studies in the context of establishing an alternative therapy for liver dysfunction.

Bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells can effectively rescue experimental liver failure and contribute to liver regeneration and offer a potentially alternative therapy to organ transplantation for treatment of liver diseases.

CT scans deepen murder mystery of 1,700-year-old mummy

The murder mystery of a 1,700-year-old Graeco-Roman mummy has deepened, with CT scans revealing that a 'metallic' object stuck in its neck is in fact one of three or four fragments lodged in the base of the skull.
According to a report by Sky News, the 1,700-year-old mummy was scanned along with two other Egyptian mummies from Birmingham Museum and Art Gallery, in a quest for more information on the circumstances surrounding their deaths.
The scans were arranged by Bob Loynes, previously an orthopaedic consultant at Mid-Staffs Hospital, UK, and a keen Egyptologist.
In the past, it has been necessary to unwrap mummies to carry out investigations, but this risky process can now be avoided.
"The opportunity to help with the further investigation of these mummies was a very exciting one for me," Loynes said.
"The CT Scans have shown amazing details, which have produced as many questions as they have given answers," he added.
Scans of the second mummy, that of Padimut, priest of the goddess Mut and probably of the 21st Dynasty (1085-935 BC), showed evidence of high quality mummification, including removal of the brain and plates in front of the eyes.
Investigations into the third mummy threw up another mystery.
The mummy, from the Namenkhetamun of the 26th Dynasty (664-525BC), was described as 'the daughter of Amunkhau' on the coffin lid.
But, the scan has revealed the mummy is male.
Researchers also discovered another mystery - an unexplained hole in the mummy's back, about the size of a fist.
According to curator Adam Jaffer, "This scanning has produced views of the museum's mummies which have never been seen before. We have been able to 'virtually unwrap' them without causing any damage."
"However, scanning poses new questions about the life and death of these ancient Egyptians which we will try to find the answers for," he said.

Now, cheap, efficient, flexible solar cells made from nanopillars

Scientists have found a new way to make cheap, efficient, and flexible solar cells by using nanopillars made of low-cost and flexible materials.
The design by researchers at the U.S. Department of Energy's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory and the University of California at Berkeley, grows optically active semiconductors in arrays of nanoscale pillars, each a single crystal, with dimensions measured in billionths of a meter.
"To take advantage of abundant solar energy we have to find ways to mass-produce efficient photovoltaics. Single-crystalline semiconductors offer a lot of promise, but standard ways of making them aren't economical," said Ali Javey, lead author of the study.
Solar cell basically converts light energy into charge-carrying electrons and "holes" (the absence of an electron), which flow to electrodes to produce a current.
But, unlike a typical two-dimensional solar cell, a nanopillar array offers much more surface for collecting light.
Computer simulations have indicated that, compared to flat surfaces, nanopillar semiconductor arrays should be more sensitive to light, have a greatly enhanced ability to separate electrons from holes, and be a more efficient collector of these charge carriers.
Thus, Javey created a new, controlled way to use a method called the "vapour-liquid-solid" process to make large-scale modules of dense, highly ordered arrays of single-crystal nanopillars.
Inside a quartz furnace, the researchers grew pillars of lectron-rich cadmium sulfide on aluminum foil, in which eometrically distributed pores made by anodization served as a template.
And in the same furnace they submerged the nanopillars, once grown, in a thin layer of hole-rich cadmium telluride, which acted as a window to collect the light.
The two materials in contact with each other form a solar cell in which the electrons flow through the nanopillars to the aluminum contact below, and the holes are conducted to thin copper-gold electrodes placed on the surface of the window above.
The efficiency of the test device was measured at six percent, which while less than the 10 to 18 percent range of mass-produced commercial cells is higher than most photovoltaic devices based on nanostructured materials.
It is possible to make a flexible solar cell, by removing the aluminum substrate, substituting an indium bottom electrode, and embedding the 3-D array in clear plastic.

Middle-aged mice fed with antibiotic live longer

Middle-aged mice, fed with the anti-biotic rapamycin, lived between nine and 14 percent longer than other mice, according to a new study. The drug has the potential to become an anti-aging pill.
The drug, among other things, is currently used to suppress immune systems in transplant patients.
The finding was the result of a collaboration between the University of Texas (UT) Health Science Centre, University of Michigan Ann Arbor and Jackson Lab, Maine.
'Rapamycin' is named after Easter Island's Polynesian name, Rapa Nui. The increased lifespan in the mice would be the equivalent increase in life expectancy that would result in humans if cancer and heart disease were cured and prevented,' said UT researchers in a press statement.
The mice were given the drug at the human equivalent of age 60.
The study is one of several in the National Institute on Aging (NIA) interventions testing program which is looking for compounds that might help to keep people active and free of disease for their whole lives.
Arlan G. Richardson, director of the Barshop Institute for Longevity and Aging Studies at UT, said: 'I've been in aging research for 35 years and there have been many so-called 'anti-aging' interventions over those years that were never successful.'
'I never thought we would find an anti-aging pill for people in my lifetime; however, rapamycin shows a great deal of promise to do just that,' he added.
First discovered in the 1970s, rapamycin is an antifungal compound secreted by bacteria. It is used as an immuno-suppressant to stop donated organ rejection in transplant patients, particularly those receiving kidneys, said a UT release.
It is also used in stents that are implanted in patients who undergo angioplasty to prop open arteries. The compound is also undergoing clinical trials for the treatment of cancer.
These findings were published online this month in Nature.

Migraines linked to reduced breast cancer risk

For women who suffer from migraines, here's some good news: New study shows that your risk of breast cancer may be reduced by as much as 26 percent.
And no matter what a woman's age or what migraine triggers a woman might be avoiding, the risk of breast cancer is still reduced, according to the study, led by Christopher I. Li, M.D., Ph.D., a breast-cancer epidemiologist and associate member of the Hutchinson Center's Public Health Sciences Division.
Li led the first-of-its-kind study linking migraines with breast cancer risk reduction that was published last November.
This time researchers found that the risk reduction remained statistically similar regardless of a woman's menopausal status, her age at migraine diagnosis, use of prescription migraine medications or whether she avoided known migraine "triggers" such as alcohol consumption, smoking and taking hormone replacements. These triggers are also well-established breast cancer risk factors.
Some key differences between this study and the initial one that discovered the link include: the sample size was more than four times larger this time - more than 4,500 cases and controls versus about 1,000 each in the first study - and was more diverse geographically, drawing women from five metropolitan areas instead of only one.
"From an epidemiological perspective, having a larger and more diverse study in its underlying population helps in replicating the finding," Li said.
The age range of women studied was wider this time, 34-64 years of age versus 55-74 years old.
"We were able to look at whether this association was seen among both pre-menopausal and post menopausal women. In breast cancer this is relevant because there are certain risk factors that are different between older and younger women. In this study we saw the same reduction in breast cancer risk associated with a migraine history regardless of age," Li said.
Researchers were able to ascertain whether women in the study had lifestyle behaviours that are known migraine triggers - alcohol consumption, smoking and taking hormone replacement therapy.
Researchers posited that perhaps women who had migraines drank and smoked less and didn't take hormone replacements.
"But in this study we looked at women who never drank, never smoked and who also didn't use hormones and found the same association within each of those groups, suggesting that the association between migraine and reduced breast cancer risk may be independent of those other factors and may stand alone as a protective factor," he said.
What remains unknown is how migraine confers its apparent protection against breast cancer.
"We know that migraine is definitely related to hormones and that's why we started looking at this in the first place. We have different ideas about what may be going on but it's unclear exactly what the biological mechanisms are," Li said.
The study appears in the July 2009 issue of Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention.

Experimental drug found effective against anthrax poisoning

An experimental drug called raxibacumab has been found to be effective in treating anthrax poisoning, say researchers.
"The results published today showed that a single dose of raxibacumab was highly effective as a treatment for inhalation anthrax in both rabbits and monkeys," said Dr Sally D. Bolmer, R.A.C, lead author and Senior Vice President, Development and Regulatory Affairs, HGS.
"Raxibacumab acted quickly to provide a significant survival benefit to animals showing clinical signs of disease caused by exposure to a dose of aerosolized anthrax spores that was approximately 200 times the median lethal dose.
"We also note that the safety profile shown in healthy human volunteers provides support for use of raxibacumab in the clinical setting of immediately life-threatening inhalation anthrax disease," she added.
The drug works by targeting anthrax toxins after they are released by the bacteria into the blood and tissues.
In an inhalation anthrax attack, people may not know they are infected with anthrax until the toxins already are circulating in their blood, and it may be too late for antibiotics alone to be effective.
"We are very proud that the importance of these data and the rigor and high quality of our scientists' work have led to publication in The New England Journal of Medicine," said Dr David C. Stump, Executive Vice President, Research and Development, HGS. Based on these results, we believe raxibacumab has the potential to be a significant step forward in the treatment of inhalation anthrax," he added.
The study has appeared in the New England Journal of Medicine.